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Home / Which Best Describes How the Pharaohsã¢â‚¬â„¢ Used Art and Architecture?

Which Best Describes How the Pharaohsã¢â‚¬â„¢ Used Art and Architecture?

Product and process of planning, designing and constructing buildings and other structures

View of Florence showing the dome, which dominates everything around it. It is octagonal in plan and ovoid in section. It has wide ribs rising to the apex with red tiles in between and a marble lantern on top.

Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton "architect", from ἀρχι- "chief" and τέκτων "creator") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures.[iii] Architectural works, in the textile form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.[4]

The practice, which began in the prehistoric era, has been used as a way of expressing civilisation for civilizations on all seven continents.[five] For this reason, compages is considered to be a form of art. Texts on compages have been written since ancient times. The primeval surviving text on architectural theories is the 1st century Advertising treatise De architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius, co-ordinate to whom a adept building embodies firmitas, utilitas , and venustas (durability, utility, and beauty). Centuries later, Leon Battista Alberti developed his ideas further, seeing beauty as an objective quality of buildings to be constitute in their proportions. Giorgio Vasari wrote Lives of the Nigh Splendid Painters, Sculptors, and Architects and put forrad the thought of style in the Western arts in the 16th century. In the 19th century, Louis Sullivan declared that "grade follows office". "Office" began to replace the classical "utility" and was understood to include non only practical simply also aesthetic, psychological and cultural dimensions. The idea of sustainable architecture was introduced in the belatedly 20th century.

Architecture began as rural, oral vernacular architecture that developed from trial and mistake to successful replication. Ancient urban architecture was preoccupied with building religious structures and buildings symbolizing the political power of rulers until Greek and Roman compages shifted focus to civic virtues. Indian and Chinese compages influenced forms all over Asia and Buddhist architecture in particular took diverse local flavors. In fact, During the European Eye Ages, pan-European styles of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the Renaissance favored Classical forms implemented past architects known past name. Later, the roles of architects and engineers became separated. Modernistic architecture began later on Globe War I as an avant-garde motion that sought to develop a completely new way appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. Emphasis was put on modern techniques, materials, and simplified geometric forms, paving the way for high-rise superstructures. Many architects became disillusioned with modernism which they perceived as ahistorical and anti-aesthetic, and postmodern and gimmicky architecture adult.

Over the years, the field of architectural construction has branched out to include everything from ship design to interior decorating.

Definitions

Architecture tin can mean:

  • A general term to depict buildings and other physical structures.[6]
  • The fine art and science of designing buildings and (some) nonbuilding structures.[6]
  • The mode of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures.[6]
  • A unifying or coherent form or structure.[7]
  • Knowledge of art, science, technology, and humanity.[half dozen]
  • The design activity of the architect,[six] from the macro-level (urban design, landscape compages) to the micro-level (construction details and piece of furniture). The do of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering professional services in connection with the pattern and structure of buildings, or congenital environments.[8]

Theory of architecture

Plan d'exécution du second étage de l'hôtel de Brionne (dessin) De Cotte 2503c – Gallica 2011 (adjusted)

Plan of the second floor (attic storey) of the Hôtel de Brionne in Paris – 1734.

The philosophy of architecture is a branch of philosophy of art, dealing with aesthetic value of architecture, its semantics and in relation with evolution of culture. Many philosophers and theoreticians from Plato to Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze,[9] Robert Venturi and Ludwig Wittgenstein have concerned themselves with the nature of architecture and whether or not architecture is distinguished from building.

Historic treatises

The earliest surviving written piece of work on the subject of architecture is De architectura past the Roman architect Vitruvius in the early on 1st century AD.[10] Co-ordinate to Vitruvius, a adept building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas ,[xi] [12] commonly known by the original translation – compactness, commodity and delight. An equivalent in mod English would be:

  • Durability – a building should stand up up robustly and remain in expert status
  • Utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used
  • Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing

According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these 3 attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De re aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornamentation also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealized man figure, the Gold mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent function of an object, rather than something applied superficially, and was based on universal, recognizable truths. The notion of manner in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Giorgio Vasari.[thirteen] By the 18th century, his Lives of the Most First-class Painters, Sculptors, and Architects had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish, and English.

In the 16th century, Italian Mannerist architect, painter and theorist Sebastiano Serlio wrote Tutte L'Opere D'Architettura et Prospetiva (Complete Works on Architecture and Perspective). This treatise exerted immense influence throughout Europe, being the first handbook that emphasized the practical rather than the theoretical aspects of compages, and information technology was the first to itemize the five orders.[fourteen]

In the early on 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the championship suggested, contrasted the modernistic, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the simply "true Christian form of architecture."[15] The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Vii Lamps of Architecture, published 1849, was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the "fine art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised past men … that the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, ability, and pleasure".[16] For Ruskin, the artful was of overriding significance. His piece of work goes on to country that a edifice is non truly a work of architecture unless it is in some style "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-synthetic, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, at the very least.[16]

On the difference between the ideals of architecture and mere construction, the renowned 20th-century architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you lot build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But all of a sudden you touch my heart, yous do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture".[17] Le Corbusier's contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said "Architecture starts when you carefully put ii bricks together. There it begins."[xviii]

The view shows a 20th-century building with two identical towers very close to each other rising from a low building which has a dome at one end, and an inverted dome, like a saucer, at the other.

Modernistic concepts

The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: "Form follows part". While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, it had the effect of introducing the concept of "part" in place of Vitruvius' "utility". "Role" came to be seen equally encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not but practical but likewise artful, psychological and cultural.

Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes across the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development.... To restrict the significant of (architectural) formalism to art for art'southward sake is not only reactionary; it can likewise be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality".[xix]

Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are Rationalism, Empiricism, Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction and Phenomenology.

In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of sustainability, hence sustainable architecture. To satisfy the contemporary ethos a edifice should exist constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and congenital environment of its surrounding surface area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management, and lighting.

History

Origins and vernacular architecture

  • In Norway: woods and elevated-level

Edifice starting time evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and ways (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to exist formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a arts and crafts, and "architecture" is the proper name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft. It is widely assumed that architectural success was the product of a process of trial and fault, with progressively less trial and more replication equally the results of the process proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the globe.

Prehistoric architecture

  • Göbekli Tepe from Turkey, founded in 10th millennium BC and abandoned in 8th millennium BC

  • Miniature of a regular Cucuteni-Trypillian house, full of ceramic vessels

Early homo settlements were more often than not rural. Hence, Expending economies resulted in the creation of urban areas which in some cases grew and evolved very rapidly, such every bit that of Çatal Höyük in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro of the Indus Valley Civilisation in modern-twenty-four hours Pakistan.

Neolithic settlements and "cities" include Göbekli Tepe and Çatalhöyük in Turkey, Jericho in the Levant, Mehrgarh in Pakistan, Knap of Howar and Skara Brae, Orkney Islands, Scotland, and the Cucuteni-Trypillian civilization settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine.

Ancient architecture

In many ancient civilizations such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and many aboriginal cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to symbolically represent the political power of the ruler or the state itself.

The compages and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new edifice types emerged. As the Architectural "way" developed in the class of the Classical orders. Roman architecture was influenced by Greek architecture as they incorporated many Greek elements into their edifice practices.[20]

Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times. These texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman Builder Vitruvius. Some of the most important early examples of canonic architecture are religious.

Asian architecture

The architecture of different parts of Asia adult differently than Europe; and each of Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture had different characteristics. In fact, Unlike Indian and Chinese architecture which had great influence on the surrounding regions, Japanese architecture did not. Some Asian architecture showed great regional diversity such as Buddhist architecture, in particular. Moreover, other architectural achievements in Asia is the Hindu temple architecture, which adult from around the 5th century CE, is in theory governed by concepts laid down in the Shastras, and is concerned with expressing the macrocosm and the microcosm.

In many Asian countries, pantheistic organized religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to raise the natural landscape. Besides, the grandest houses were relatively lightweight structures mainly using woods until recent times, and there are few survivals of neat historic period. Buddhism was associated with a motility to stone and brick religious structures, probably get-go every bit rock-cut architecture, which has frequently survived very well.

Early on Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of Prc from the 7th–5th centuries BCE; the Shilpa Shastras of aboriginal India; Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka and Araniko of Nepal .

Islamic compages

Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incorporating architectural forms from the ancient Heart East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the social club. Examples can be establish throughout the Eye East, Turkey, Due north Africa, the Indian Sub-continent and in parts of Europe, such as Spain, Albania, and the Balkan States, every bit the result of the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. [21] [22]

Middle Ages

In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds were formed past craftsmen to organize their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The function of architect was usually 1 with that of main bricklayer, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.

The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals. From about 900 CE onward, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural noesis across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic.

Also, a pregnant part of the Middle Ages architectural heritage is numerous fortifications across the continent. From the Balkans to Espana, and from Malta to Estonia, these buildings represent an important part of European heritage.

Renaissance and the architect

In Renaissance Europe, from almost 1400 onwards, there was a revival of Classical learning accompanied by the development of Renaissance humanism, which placed greater emphasis on the part of the individual in society than had been the case during the Medieval menstruum. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun. There was still no dividing line between artist, builder and engineer, or any of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference.

A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and engineering, which affected the proportions and construction of buildings. At this stage, it was nonetheless possible for an creative person to pattern a bridge every bit the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.

Early on mod and the industrial age

With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the ascension of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering science began to carve up, and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, oft at the expense of technical aspects of building design. In that location was also the ascent of the "admirer architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified past the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish baronial styles. Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at École des Beaux-Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility.

Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass product and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the heart class equally ornamented products, once inside the province of expensive adroitness, became cheaper under machine production.

Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. Housebuilders could apply current architectural blueprint in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals.

Modernism

Effectually the commencement of the 20th century, general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist compages and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served equally precursors to Modern architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine-fabricated objects. The rise of the profession of industrial blueprint is usually placed hither. Post-obit this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural premises prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a building equally the ultimate synthesis—the apex—of fine art, craft, and engineering.

When modernistic architecture was showtime practiced, it was an avant-garde motion with moral, philosophical, and artful underpinnings. Immediately after World State of war I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style advisable for a new postal service-state of war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic guild. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and decoration in favor of functional details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them backside decorative forms. Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright adult organic architecture, in which the form was defined by its surroundings and purpose, with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime number examples being Robie Firm and Fallingwater.

Architects such equally Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of edifice materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new ways and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rising superstructures. Fazlur Rahman Khan's development of the tube structure was a technological break-through in building ever higher. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the International Style, an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New York's World Trade Center designed past Minoru Yamasaki.

Postmodernism

Many architects resisted modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of historical styles. As the offset generation of modernists began to die after World War Two, the second generation of architects including Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, and Eero Saarinen tried to expand the aesthetics of modernism with Brutalism, buildings with expressive sculpture façades made of unfinished concrete. But an even younger postwar generation critiqued modernism and Brutalism for beingness too ascetic, standardized, monotone, and not taking into account the richness of human experience offered in historical buildings across fourth dimension and in different places and cultures.

Ane such reaction to the common cold aesthetic of modernism and Brutalism is the school of metaphoric architecture, which includes such things as bio morphism and zoomorphic architecture, both using nature as the main source of inspiration and design. While it is considered by some to be merely an attribute of postmodernism, others consider it to be a schoolhouse in its ain right and a later development of expressionist architecture.[24]

Outset in the tardily 1950s and 1960s, architectural phenomenology emerged as an important movement in the early reaction confronting modernism, with architects similar Charles Moore in the Us, Christian Norberg-Schulz in Norway, and Ernesto Nathan Rogers and Vittorio Gregotti, Michele Valori, Bruno Zevi in Italy, who collectively popularized an interest in a new contemporary compages aimed at expanding human feel using historical buildings as models and precedents.[25] Postmodernism produced a style that combined contemporary building applied science and cheap materials, with the aesthetics of older pre-modern and non-modernistic styles, from high classical compages to popular or vernacular regional building styles. Robert Venturi famously defined postmodern compages as a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed within and embellished on the outside) and upheld information technology confronting modernist and brutalist "ducks" (buildings with unnecessarily expressive tectonic forms).[26]

Compages today

Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increment (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specializations for each projection blazon, technological expertise or project commitment methods. Moreover, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' builder [Notes one] from the 'project' architect who ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of liability.[Notes 2] The preparatory processes for the blueprint of any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters equally durability, sustainability, quality, coin, and compliance with local laws. A large construction can no longer be the design of one person but must be the work of many. Modernism and Postmodernism take been criticized by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful compages is non a personal, philosophical, or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather information technology has to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to create livable environments, with the design process beingness informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.

Ecology sustainability has become a mainstream consequence, with a profound upshot on the architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings, accept get educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable blueprint, rather than solutions based primarily on immediate toll. Major examples of this can be found in passive solar edifice design, greener roof designs, biodegradable materials, and more attention to a construction's free energy usage. This major shift in architecture has likewise changed compages schools to focus more on the environment. In that location has been an acceleration in the number of buildings that seek to meet green building sustainable blueprint principles. Sustainable practices that were at the cadre of vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration for environmentally and socially sustainable contemporary techniques.[27] The U.Southward. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Ecology Design) rating system has been instrumental in this.[28] [ quantify ]

Meantime, the recent movements of New Urbanism, Metaphoric architecture, Complementary architecture and New Classical architecture promote a sustainable approach towards structure that appreciates and develops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical blueprint.[29] [thirty] This in contrast to modernist and globally uniform architecture, as well as leaning confronting lone housing estates and suburban sprawl.[31] Glass curtain walls, which were the hallmark of the ultra modern urban life in many countries surfaced fifty-fifty in developing countries like Nigeria where international styles had been represented since the mid 20th Century by and large because of the leanings of foreign-trained architects.[32]

Other types of architecture

Landscape compages

Landscape compages is the blueprint of outdoor public areas, landmarks, and structures to achieve environmental, social-behavioral, or artful outcomes.[33] Information technology involves the systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and soil conditions and processes in the mural, and the pattern of interventions that will produce the desired issue. The scope of the profession includes landscape design; site planning; stormwater management; environmental restoration; parks and recreation planning; visual resource management; greenish infrastructure planning and provision; and private manor and residence landscape primary planning and design; all at varying scales of blueprint, planning and management. A practitioner in the profession of landscape architecture is called a mural architect.

Interior architecture

Charles Rennie Mackintosh – Music Room 1901

Interior compages is the design of a space which has been created past structural boundaries and the human interaction within these boundaries. It can as well be the initial blueprint and plan for utilise, then later redesigned to arrange a changed purpose, or a significantly revised design for adaptive reuse of the edifice shell.[34] The latter is ofttimes part of sustainable architecture practices, conserving resources through "recycling" a structure by adaptive redesign. Generally referred to as the spatial art of environmental design, course and practice, interior architecture is the procedure through which the interiors of buildings are designed, concerned with all aspects of the human uses of structural spaces. Put simply, interior architecture is the design of an interior in architectural terms.

Naval architecture

Torso program of a ship showing the hull form

Naval architecture, likewise known as naval engineering, is an engineering discipline dealing with the engineering design procedure, shipbuilding, maintenance, and operation of marine vessels and structures.[35] [36] Naval architecture involves bones and applied inquiry, blueprint, development, pattern evaluation and calculations during all stages of the life of a marine vehicle. Preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry out-docking are the main activities involved. Ship design calculations are also required for ships being modified (by ways of conversion, rebuilding, modernization, or repair). Naval compages also involves the formulation of safety regulations and damage control rules and the approval and certification of send designs to see statutory and non-statutory requirements.

Urban design

Urban pattern is the process of designing and shaping the physical features of cities, towns, and villages. In dissimilarity to architecture, which focuses on the design of individual buildings, urban design deals with the larger scale of groups of buildings, streets and public spaces, whole neighborhoods and districts, and entire cities, with the goal of making urban areas functional, attractive, and sustainable.[37]

Urban design is an interdisciplinary field that utilizes elements of many built environment professions, including mural architecture, urban planning, architecture, civil engineering science and municipal engineering.[38] It is common for professionals in all these disciplines to practice urban design. In more than recent times unlike sub-subfields of urban design have emerged such as strategic urban design, landscape urbanism, water-sensitive urban design, and sustainable urbanism.

Metaphorical "architectures"

"Compages" is used every bit a metaphor for many modern techniques or fields for structuring abstractions. These include:

  • Computer architecture, a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of estimator systems, with software compages, hardware architecture and network architecture covering more specific aspects.
  • Business organization architecture, defined as "a blueprint of the enterprise that provides a common understanding of the arrangement and is used to align strategic objectives and tactical demands",[39] Enterprise architecture is another term.
  • Cognitive architecture theories virtually the structure of the human mind
  • System architecture a conceptual model that defines the construction, beliefs, and more views of any type of system.[40]

Seismic architecture

The term 'seismic architecture' or 'earthquake architecture' was first introduced in 1985 past Robert Reitherman.[41] The phrase "earthquake architecture" is used to draw a degree of architectural expression of convulsion resistance or implication of architectural configuration, form or fashion in earthquake resistance. Information technology is also used to depict buildings in which seismic design considerations impacted its architecture. Information technology may exist considered a new aesthetic approach in designing structures in seismic prone areas.[42] The broad latitude of expressive possibilities ranges from metaphorical uses of seismic problems, to the more straightforward exposure of seismic engineering science. While outcomes of an earthquake compages can be very diverse in their physical manifestations, architectural expression of seismic principles can also accept many forms and levels of sophistication.[43]

See also

  • Architectural engineering science
  • Architectural technology
  • Index of architecture articles
  • Outline of architecture
  • Philosophy of architecture
  • Reverse architecture
  • Timeline of architecture

Notes

  1. ^ A design architect is one who is responsible for the design.
  2. ^ A project architect is ane who is responsible for ensuring the design is built correctly and who administers building contracts – in non-specialist architectural practices the project builder is besides the design architect and the term refers to the differing roles the builder plays at differing stages of the process.

References

  1. ^ Museo Galileo, Museum and Institute of History and Science, The Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore Archived 1 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine, (accessed thirty January 2013)
  2. ^ Giovanni Fanelli, Brunelleschi, Becocci, Florence (1980), Chapter: The Dome pp. 10–41.
  3. ^ "architecture". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 27 October 2017.
  4. ^ Pace, Anthony (2004). "Tarxien". In Daniel Cilia (ed.). Republic of malta before History – The Globe'southward Oldest Complimentary Continuing Stone Architecture. Miranda Publishers. ISBN978-9990985085.
  5. ^ "vii Things I Learned About "Dwelling house" from Talking to Architects on Every Continent". Apartment Therapy . Retrieved v Dec 2020.
  6. ^ a b c d eastward Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (1993), Oxford, ISBN 0 19 860575 7
  7. ^ Merriam–Webster's Lexicon of English language Usage, ISBN 0-87779-132-5 or ISBN 978-0-87779-132-four
  8. ^ "Gov.ns.ca". Gov.ns.ca. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
  9. ^ Deleuze, Gilles (1990). Pourparlers. Paris: Minuit. p. 219. It is not the line that is betwixt 2 points, but the point that is at the intersection of several lines.
  10. ^ D. Rowland – T.Due north. Howe: Vitruvius. 10 Books on Architecture. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1999, ISBN 0-521-00292-3
  11. ^ "Vitruvius Ten Books on Architecture, with regard to landscape and garden pattern". gardenvisit.com. Archived from the original on 12 Oct 2007. Retrieved fourteen November 2005.
  12. ^ "Vitruvius". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
  13. ^ Françoise Choay, Alberti and Vitruvius, editor, Joseph Rykwert, Profile 21, Architectural Design, Vol. 49 No. v–6
  14. ^ Sebastiano Serlio -- On domestic architecture, Columbia University Libraries, accessed February v, 2021
  15. ^ D'Anjou, Philippe (2011). "An Ethics of Freedom for Architectural Design Practice". Journal of Architectural Education. 64 (ii): 141–147. doi:10.1111/j.1531-314X.2010.01137.x. JSTOR 41318789. S2CID 110313708.
  16. ^ a b John Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture, Thousand. Allen (1880), reprinted Dover, (1989) ISBN 0-486-26145-X
  17. ^ Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, Dover Publications(1985). ISBN 0-486-25023-7
  18. ^ "Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. There it begins. - Ludwig Mies van der Rohe at BrainyQuote". BrainyQuote.
  19. ^ Rondanini, Nunzia Architecture and Social Alter Heresies Ii, Vol. 3, No. iii, New York, Neresies Collective Inc., 1981.
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  21. ^ Marika Sardar (Oct 2004). "Essay: The Afterwards Ottomans and the Affect of Europe". www.metmuseum.org. The Met. Retrieved 12 February 2019.
  22. ^ Lory, Bernard (1 January 2015). "The Ottoman Legacy in the Balkans" (html / pdf). Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume Three. Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume Three. pp. 355–405. doi:10.1163/9789004290365_006. ISBN9789004290365 . Retrieved 12 February 2019.
  23. ^ Marinache, Oana (2017). Paul Gottereau - Un Regal în Arhitectură (in Romanaian). Editura Istoria Artei. p. 184. ISBN978-606-8839-09-7.
  24. ^ Fez-Barringten, Barie (2012). Architecture: The Making of Metaphors. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN978-ane-4438-3517-6.
  25. ^ Otero-Pailos, Jorge (2010). Architecture's Historical Plough: Phenomenology and the Rise of the Postmodern. Minneapolis: Academy of Minnesota Printing. ISBN9780816666041.
  26. ^ Venturi, Robert (1966). Complexity and Contradiction in Compages . New York: Museum of Modern Art. complexity and contradiction in compages.
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  28. ^ Other energy efficiency and dark-green building rating systems include Energy Star, Green Globes, and CHPS (Collaborative for Loftier Functioning Schools).
  29. ^ "The Lease of the New Urbanism". cnu.org. 20 April 2015.
  30. ^ "Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Futurity". Traditional Architecture Group. Archived from the original on 5 March 2018. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
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  34. ^ "Interior Architecture". RISD Interior Architecture Graduate Section.
  35. ^ RINA. "Careers in Naval Architecture". www.rina.org.uk.
  36. ^ Biran, Adrian; (2003). Ship hydrostatics and stability (1st Ed.) – Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-4988-seven
  37. ^ Boeing; et al. (2014). "LEED-ND and Livability Revisited". Berkeley Planning Journal. 27: 31–55. doi:ten.5070/BP327120808 . Retrieved 15 Apr 2015.
  38. ^ Van Assche, K., Beunen, R., Duineveld, M., & de Jong, H. (2013). Co-evolutions of planning and blueprint: Risks and benefits of pattern perspectives in planning systems Archived 28 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Planning Theory, 12(ii), 177-198.
  39. ^ OMG Business Compages Special Interest Group "What Is Business Architecture?" at bawg.omg.org, 2008 (annal.org). Accessed 04-03-2015; Cited in: William M. Ulrich, Philip Newcomb Information Systems Transformation: Architecture-Driven Modernization Case Studies. (2010), p. 4.
  40. ^ Hannu Jaakkola and Bernhard Thalheim. (2011) "Architecture-driven modelling methodologies." In: Proceedings of the 2011 conference on Information Modelling and Knowledge Bases XXII. Anneli Heimbürger et al. (eds). IOS Press. p. 98
  41. ^ Reitherman, Robert (1985). "Earthquake Engineering and Earthquake Architecture. Part of the AIA Workshop for Architects and Related Edifice Professionals on Designing for Earthquakes in the Western Mountain Statess".
  42. ^ Llunji, Mentor (2016). Seismic Architecture - The compages of earthquake resistant structures. Msproject. ISBN9789940979409.
  43. ^ Charleson, Andrew (2000). "Towards An Earthquake Compages. 12 WCEE-12th World Briefing on Earthquake Engineering science".

External links

  • Globe Compages Customs
  • Compages.com, published past Royal Institute of British Architects
  • Architectural centers and museums in the world, list of links from the UIA
  • American Institute of Architects
  • Glossary of Architectural Terms Archived 28 August 2021 at the Wayback Automobile
  • Cities and Buildings Database – Collection of digitized images of buildings and cities drawn from across time and throughout the world from the Academy of Washington Library
  • "Architecture and Power", BBC Radio 4 word with Adrian Tinniswood, Gillian Darley and Gavin Postage stamp (In Our Time, Oct. 31, 2002)

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture